From 370fd0a03406c1e2fdf7705389d95f5be08911b4 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001
From: Michal <michal@itaz.eu>
Date: Thu, 20 Aug 2026 23:33:13 +0100
Subject: [PATCH] feat(secrets): opt-in injected secret delivery, scoped per
 server
MIME-Version: 1.0
Content-Type: text/plain; charset=UTF-8
Content-Transfer-Encoding: 8bit

Completes the path that stops mcpd writing secret VALUES into MCP server
pod specs. With `secretDelivery: injector`, the pod fetches its own
secrets from OpenBao through the agent injector, under a ServiceAccount
and role scoped to just that server's secrets — so the value never enters
etcd, and gitea-mcp cannot read the Grafana token.

Opt-in per server, defaulting to `env`. Every existing server is
bit-for-bit unchanged, and migrating is one reversible decision at a time
rather than a flag day.

The two invariants under most risk, both tested:

- **Opted-out servers produce an identical manifest.** No annotations, no
  serviceAccountName, automountServiceAccountToken still false.

- **Opted-in servers still fail LOUDLY on a bad ref.** Once mcpd stops
  reading a server's secrets, the check e6cd735 added no longer fires for
  it, and a typo'd secretRef would degrade into a vault-agent-init
  crashloop that mcpd reports as a generic pod failure — the same class of
  bug that had gitea-mcp running for weeks on an empty token while
  reporting healthy. `validateServerEnvRefs` resolves every ref and throws
  the value away, purely to keep that error. After the value cache it is a
  cache hit and costs nothing.

Shell quoting is the other silent-failure trap and is treated as part of
the contract: the agent renders `export NAME='value'` and the container
command sources it, so a value containing a space, `$`, a quote or a
newline would truncate and yield an empty token. `shellSingleQuote` is
tested by executing a real /bin/sh over nine adversarial values including
`'; export PWNED=1; '` — and those tests fail against naive quoting,
confirmed before keeping them.

`sh -c <script> arg0 arg1 …` preserves argv via $0/$@, and `exec` keeps
PID 1 as the real process, which matters because mcpd attaches to PID 1's
stdin/stdout for STDIO servers.

Docker/Podman declare `capabilities.secretRefs: false` and fall back to
inline resolution, so local development is untouched. Deleting a server
revokes its identity, after its pods are gone and best-effort — a role no
pod can authenticate as grants nothing, and failing the delete over it
would strand the row.

Per the CLI rules, `secretDelivery`/`entrypoint` are `create` flags,
round-trip through apply -f, and show in `describe server` — which now
also flags servers still inlining secrets into their pod spec.

Co-Authored-By: Claude Opus 5 (1M context) <noreply@anthropic.com>
Claude-Session: https://claude.ai/code/session_018vybEitX4FykeMatKe5Xki
---
 completions/mcpctl.bash                       |   2 +-
 completions/mcpctl.fish                       |   2 +
 src/cli/src/commands/apply.ts                 |   4 +
 src/cli/src/commands/create.ts                |   4 +
 src/cli/src/commands/describe.ts              |  14 ++
 .../migration.sql                             |  12 ++
 src/db/prisma/schema.prisma                   |  38 ++++-
 src/mcpd/src/main.ts                          |  35 ++++-
 .../src/services/backup/backup-service.ts     |   5 +
 .../src/services/backup/restore-service.ts    |   5 +
 .../src/services/docker/container-manager.ts  |   8 +
 src/mcpd/src/services/env-resolver.ts         |  60 ++++++++
 src/mcpd/src/services/instance.service.ts     |  67 ++++++++-
 .../services/k8s/kubernetes-orchestrator.ts   |   3 +
 .../src/services/k8s/manifest-generator.ts    | 115 ++++++++++++++-
 .../src/services/k8s/service-account-port.ts  |  52 +++++++
 src/mcpd/src/services/mcp-server.service.ts   |  17 ++-
 src/mcpd/src/services/orchestrator.ts         |  26 ++++
 .../src/services/server-identity.service.ts   |  52 +++++++
 src/mcpd/src/validation/mcp-server.schema.ts  |  28 ++++
 .../tests/injector-instance-wiring.test.ts    |  67 +++++++++
 src/mcpd/tests/injector-manifest.test.ts      | 138 ++++++++++++++++++
 22 files changed, 740 insertions(+), 14 deletions(-)
 create mode 100644 src/db/prisma/migrations/20260820234500_add_server_secret_delivery/migration.sql
 create mode 100644 src/mcpd/src/services/k8s/service-account-port.ts
 create mode 100644 src/mcpd/tests/injector-instance-wiring.test.ts
 create mode 100644 src/mcpd/tests/injector-manifest.test.ts

diff --git a/completions/mcpctl.bash b/completions/mcpctl.bash
index 6d560a4..0a6994f 100644
--- a/completions/mcpctl.bash
+++ b/completions/mcpctl.bash
@@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ _mcpctl() {
       else
         case "$create_sub" in
           server)
-            COMPREPLY=($(compgen -W "-d --description --package-name --runtime --docker-image --transport --repository-url --external-url --command --container-port --replicas --env --volume --health-check-tool --health-check-args --health-check-interval --health-check-timeout --health-check-failure-threshold --from-template --env-from-secret --force -h --help" -- "$cur"))
+            COMPREPLY=($(compgen -W "-d --description --package-name --runtime --docker-image --transport --repository-url --external-url --command --container-port --replicas --env --volume --health-check-tool --health-check-args --health-check-interval --health-check-timeout --health-check-failure-threshold --secret-delivery --entrypoint --from-template --env-from-secret --force -h --help" -- "$cur"))
             ;;
           secret)
             COMPREPLY=($(compgen -W "--data --force -h --help" -- "$cur"))
diff --git a/completions/mcpctl.fish b/completions/mcpctl.fish
index c3f9961..76f4a8f 100644
--- a/completions/mcpctl.fish
+++ b/completions/mcpctl.fish
@@ -386,6 +386,8 @@ complete -c mcpctl -n "__mcpctl_subcmd_active create server" -l health-check-arg
 complete -c mcpctl -n "__mcpctl_subcmd_active create server" -l health-check-interval -d 'Readiness probe interval in seconds (default 60)' -x
 complete -c mcpctl -n "__mcpctl_subcmd_active create server" -l health-check-timeout -d 'Readiness probe timeout in seconds (default 10)' -x
 complete -c mcpctl -n "__mcpctl_subcmd_active create server" -l health-check-failure-threshold -d 'Consecutive failures before the instance is marked unhealthy (default 3)' -x
+complete -c mcpctl -n "__mcpctl_subcmd_active create server" -l secret-delivery -d 'How secret env reaches the container: env (default, value written into the pod spec) or injector (pod fetches its own secrets from OpenBao under a scoped identity)' -x
+complete -c mcpctl -n "__mcpctl_subcmd_active create server" -l entrypoint -d 'Comma-separated argv to exec under the injector wrapper. Required for --secret-delivery injector on a dockerImage server, whose ENTRYPOINT mcpd cannot introspect' -x
 complete -c mcpctl -n "__mcpctl_subcmd_active create server" -l from-template -d 'Create from template (name or name:version)' -x
 complete -c mcpctl -n "__mcpctl_subcmd_active create server" -l env-from-secret -d 'Map template env vars from a secret' -x
 complete -c mcpctl -n "__mcpctl_subcmd_active create server" -l force -d 'Update if already exists'
diff --git a/src/cli/src/commands/apply.ts b/src/cli/src/commands/apply.ts
index d3bbb2a..da66a8e 100644
--- a/src/cli/src/commands/apply.ts
+++ b/src/cli/src/commands/apply.ts
@@ -44,6 +44,8 @@ const ServerSpecSchema = z.object({
   env: z.array(ServerEnvEntrySchema).default([]),
   healthCheck: HealthCheckSchema.optional(),
   volumes: z.array(VolumeSpecSchema).default([]),
+  secretDelivery: z.enum(['env', 'injector']).optional(),
+  entrypoint: z.array(z.string()).optional(),
 });
 
 const SecretSpecSchema = z.object({
@@ -136,6 +138,8 @@ const TemplateSpecSchema = z.object({
   env: z.array(TemplateEnvEntrySchema).default([]),
   healthCheck: HealthCheckSchema.optional(),
   volumes: z.array(VolumeSpecSchema).default([]),
+  secretDelivery: z.enum(['env', 'injector']).optional(),
+  entrypoint: z.array(z.string()).optional(),
 });
 
 const UserSpecSchema = z.object({
diff --git a/src/cli/src/commands/create.ts b/src/cli/src/commands/create.ts
index cc5d720..c64a681 100644
--- a/src/cli/src/commands/create.ts
+++ b/src/cli/src/commands/create.ts
@@ -252,6 +252,8 @@ export function createCreateCommand(deps: CreateCommandDeps): Command {
     .option('--health-check-interval <seconds>', 'Readiness probe interval in seconds (default 60)')
     .option('--health-check-timeout <seconds>', 'Readiness probe timeout in seconds (default 10)')
     .option('--health-check-failure-threshold <count>', 'Consecutive failures before the instance is marked unhealthy (default 3)')
+    .option('--secret-delivery <mode>', 'How secret env reaches the container: env (default, value written into the pod spec) or injector (pod fetches its own secrets from OpenBao under a scoped identity)')
+    .option('--entrypoint <argv>', 'Comma-separated argv to exec under the injector wrapper. Required for --secret-delivery injector on a dockerImage server, whose ENTRYPOINT mcpd cannot introspect')
     .option('--from-template <name>', 'Create from template (name or name:version)')
     .option('--env-from-secret <secret>', 'Map template env vars from a secret')
     .option('--force', 'Update if already exists')
@@ -327,6 +329,8 @@ export function createCreateCommand(deps: CreateCommandDeps): Command {
       if (opts.description !== undefined) body.description = opts.description;
       if (opts.transport) body.transport = opts.transport;
       if (opts.replicas) body.replicas = parseInt(opts.replicas, 10);
+      if (opts.secretDelivery) body.secretDelivery = opts.secretDelivery;
+      if (opts.entrypoint) body.entrypoint = (opts.entrypoint as string).split(',').map((a) => a.trim()).filter(Boolean);
       if (opts.packageName) body.packageName = opts.packageName;
       if (opts.runtime) body.runtime = opts.runtime;
       if (opts.dockerImage) body.dockerImage = opts.dockerImage;
diff --git a/src/cli/src/commands/describe.ts b/src/cli/src/commands/describe.ts
index a425e42..2449fb5 100644
--- a/src/cli/src/commands/describe.ts
+++ b/src/cli/src/commands/describe.ts
@@ -21,6 +21,20 @@ function formatServerDetail(server: Record<string, unknown>): string {
   lines.push(`${pad('Name:')}${server.name}`);
   lines.push(`${pad('Transport:')}${server.transport ?? '-'}`);
   lines.push(`${pad('Replicas:')}${server.replicas ?? 1}`);
+  {
+    // Surface the remaining exposure rather than leaving it silent: a server
+    // still on `env` with secret refs has those VALUES written into its pod
+    // spec, i.e. cleartext in etcd for anyone with `get pod`.
+    const delivery = (server as { secretDelivery?: string }).secretDelivery ?? 'env';
+    const env = (server.env ?? []) as Array<{ valueFrom?: unknown }>;
+    const hasSecretRefs = env.some((e) => e.valueFrom !== undefined);
+    const note = delivery === 'injector'
+      ? ' (pod fetches its own secrets under a scoped OpenBao identity)'
+      : hasSecretRefs
+        ? '  ⚠ secret values are inlined into the pod spec'
+        : '';
+    lines.push(`${pad('Secret Delivery:')}${delivery}${note}`);
+  }
   if (server.dockerImage) lines.push(`${pad('Docker Image:')}${server.dockerImage}`);
   if (server.packageName) lines.push(`${pad('Package:')}${server.packageName}`);
   if (server.externalUrl) lines.push(`${pad('External URL:')}${server.externalUrl}`);
diff --git a/src/db/prisma/migrations/20260820234500_add_server_secret_delivery/migration.sql b/src/db/prisma/migrations/20260820234500_add_server_secret_delivery/migration.sql
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..900e905
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/db/prisma/migrations/20260820234500_add_server_secret_delivery/migration.sql
@@ -0,0 +1,12 @@
+-- Per-server secret delivery mode.
+--
+-- 'env' preserves today's behaviour exactly: mcpd resolves secret refs and
+-- writes the VALUES into the pod spec. Defaulting to it means every existing
+-- server is unchanged by this migration, and migration to 'injector' is an
+-- explicit, reversible, per-server decision.
+ALTER TABLE "McpServer" ADD COLUMN "secretDelivery" TEXT NOT NULL DEFAULT 'env';
+
+-- argv to exec after the injector's rendered secrets are sourced. Only needed
+-- for dockerImage servers, where the image ENTRYPOINT is what would otherwise
+-- run and mcpd cannot introspect it.
+ALTER TABLE "McpServer" ADD COLUMN "entrypoint" JSONB;
diff --git a/src/db/prisma/schema.prisma b/src/db/prisma/schema.prisma
index 7b71bc8..77d16bc 100644
--- a/src/db/prisma/schema.prisma
+++ b/src/db/prisma/schema.prisma
@@ -71,9 +71,23 @@ model McpServer {
   env           Json      @default("[]")
   healthCheck   Json?
   volumes       Json      @default("[]")
-  version       Int       @default(1)
-  createdAt     DateTime  @default(now())
-  updatedAt     DateTime  @updatedAt
+
+  /// How secret-backed env reaches the container.
+  ///   env      — mcpd resolves values and writes them into the pod spec.
+  ///              Cleartext in etcd, readable by anyone with `get pod`.
+  ///   injector — the pod fetches its own secrets from OpenBao via the agent
+  ///              injector, using a ServiceAccount + role scoped to just this
+  ///              server's secrets. The value never touches the pod spec.
+  /// Defaults to `env` so existing servers are bit-for-bit unchanged.
+  secretDelivery String @default("env")
+
+  /// argv the injector wrapper must exec after sourcing the rendered secrets.
+  /// Only needed for dockerImage servers using `injector`, where the image's
+  /// own ENTRYPOINT is what would otherwise run and mcpd cannot introspect it.
+  entrypoint Json?
+  version    Int      @default(1)
+  createdAt  DateTime @default(now())
+  updatedAt  DateTime @updatedAt
 
   templateName    String?
   templateVersion String?
@@ -109,8 +123,22 @@ model McpTemplate {
   env           Json      @default("[]")
   healthCheck   Json?
   volumes       Json      @default("[]")
-  createdAt     DateTime  @default(now())
-  updatedAt     DateTime  @updatedAt
+
+  /// How secret-backed env reaches the container.
+  ///   env      — mcpd resolves values and writes them into the pod spec.
+  ///              Cleartext in etcd, readable by anyone with `get pod`.
+  ///   injector — the pod fetches its own secrets from OpenBao via the agent
+  ///              injector, using a ServiceAccount + role scoped to just this
+  ///              server's secrets. The value never touches the pod spec.
+  /// Defaults to `env` so existing servers are bit-for-bit unchanged.
+  secretDelivery String @default("env")
+
+  /// argv the injector wrapper must exec after sourcing the rendered secrets.
+  /// Only needed for dockerImage servers using `injector`, where the image's
+  /// own ENTRYPOINT is what would otherwise run and mcpd cannot introspect it.
+  entrypoint Json?
+  createdAt  DateTime @default(now())
+  updatedAt  DateTime @updatedAt
 
   @@index([name])
 }
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/main.ts b/src/mcpd/src/main.ts
index 51ed1c4..013361e 100644
--- a/src/mcpd/src/main.ts
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/main.ts
@@ -25,6 +25,9 @@ import { SecretBackendService } from './services/secret-backend.service.js';
 import { SecretMigrateService } from './services/secret-migrate.service.js';
 import { bootstrapSecretBackends } from './bootstrap/secret-backends.js';
 import { backfillSecretKeyNames } from './bootstrap/secret-key-names.js';
+import { ServerIdentityService } from './services/server-identity.service.js';
+import { K8sServiceAccountPort } from './services/k8s/service-account-port.js';
+import { K8sOfficialClient } from './services/k8s/k8s-client-official.js';
 import { warmSecretCache } from './bootstrap/warm-secret-cache.js';
 import { registerSecretBackendRoutes } from './routes/secret-backends.js';
 import { registerSecretMigrateRoutes } from './routes/secret-migrate.js';
@@ -519,8 +522,38 @@ async function main(): Promise<void> {
   // AgentService + ChatService get fully wired below once projectService and
   // mcpProxyService are constructed (ChatService needs them via the
   // ChatToolDispatcher bridge).
-  const instanceService = new InstanceService(instanceRepo, serverRepo, orchestrator, secretService);
+  // Per-server OpenBao identities, for servers with `secretDelivery: injector`.
+  // Kubernetes-only: it needs a ServiceAccount per server and an orchestrator
+  // that can honour secret references. Left undefined elsewhere, which makes
+  // InstanceService fall back to inline resolution — so Docker/Podman local
+  // development is unaffected.
+  const serverIdentityService = process.env['MCPD_ORCHESTRATOR'] === 'kubernetes'
+    ? (() => {
+        const k8s = new K8sOfficialClient();
+        return new ServerIdentityService(
+          secretBackendService,
+          new K8sServiceAccountPort(k8s.core, k8s.serversNamespace),
+          {
+            info: (obj: Record<string, unknown>, msg: string): void => { app.log.info(obj, msg); },
+            warn: (obj: Record<string, unknown>, msg: string): void => { app.log.warn(obj, msg); },
+          },
+          {
+            // Must be the mount that validates THIS cluster's SA tokens; the
+            // chart default (`auth/kubernetes`) belongs to a different cluster
+            // and holds none of our roles.
+            authPath: process.env['MCPD_SECRET_INJECTOR_AUTH_PATH'] ?? 'auth/kubernetes',
+            mount: process.env['MCPD_SECRET_INJECTOR_MOUNT'] ?? 'secret',
+            pathPrefix: process.env['MCPD_SECRET_INJECTOR_PREFIX'] ?? 'mcpctl',
+          },
+        );
+      })()
+    : undefined;
+
+  const instanceService = new InstanceService(
+    instanceRepo, serverRepo, orchestrator, secretService, serverIdentityService,
+  );
   serverService.setInstanceService(instanceService);
+  if (serverIdentityService !== undefined) serverService.setServerIdentity(serverIdentityService);
   const projectService = new ProjectService(projectRepo, serverRepo);
   const auditLogService = new AuditLogService(auditLogRepo);
   const auditEventService = new AuditEventService(auditEventRepo);
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/services/backup/backup-service.ts b/src/mcpd/src/services/backup/backup-service.ts
index c6410b3..5311d1f 100644
--- a/src/mcpd/src/services/backup/backup-service.ts
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/services/backup/backup-service.ts
@@ -40,6 +40,9 @@ export interface BackupServer {
   env: unknown;
   healthCheck: unknown;
   volumes: unknown;
+  /** Optional so backups taken before the field remain restorable. */
+  secretDelivery?: string;
+  entrypoint?: unknown;
 }
 
 export interface BackupSecret {
@@ -142,6 +145,8 @@ export class BackupService {
         env: s.env,
         healthCheck: s.healthCheck,
         volumes: s.volumes,
+        secretDelivery: s.secretDelivery,
+        entrypoint: s.entrypoint,
       }));
     }
 
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/services/backup/restore-service.ts b/src/mcpd/src/services/backup/restore-service.ts
index 2aa9deb..a710bbc 100644
--- a/src/mcpd/src/services/backup/restore-service.ts
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/services/backup/restore-service.ts
@@ -177,6 +177,11 @@ export class RestoreService {
           // a claim of the same name if one survived, and otherwise starts on a
           // fresh empty volume.
           volumes: (server.volumes ?? []) as Parameters<IMcpServerRepository['create']>[0]['volumes'],
+          // Preserve the delivery mode across a backup/restore round-trip.
+          // Falling back to 'env' keeps pre-field backups restorable, and 'env'
+          // is the safe default: it works without the per-server OpenBao
+          // identity, which a restore cannot assume still exists.
+          secretDelivery: (server.secretDelivery === 'injector' ? 'injector' : 'env'),
         };
         if (server.packageName) createData.packageName = server.packageName;
         if (server.runtime) createData.runtime = server.runtime;
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/services/docker/container-manager.ts b/src/mcpd/src/services/docker/container-manager.ts
index 79b758d..e1f4422 100644
--- a/src/mcpd/src/services/docker/container-manager.ts
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/services/docker/container-manager.ts
@@ -29,6 +29,14 @@ function mapState(state: string | undefined): ContainerInfo['state'] {
 }
 
 export class DockerContainerManager implements McpOrchestrator {
+  /**
+   * No injector equivalent exists for plain Docker/Podman containers, so
+   * `envFromSecret` cannot be honoured here — mcpd resolves those refs and
+   * merges them into `env` instead. Local development therefore keeps today's
+   * behaviour exactly.
+   */
+  readonly capabilities = { secretRefs: false } as const;
+
   private docker: Docker;
 
   constructor(opts?: Docker.DockerOptions) {
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/services/env-resolver.ts b/src/mcpd/src/services/env-resolver.ts
index c964079..df7c89a 100644
--- a/src/mcpd/src/services/env-resolver.ts
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/services/env-resolver.ts
@@ -44,3 +44,63 @@ export async function resolveServerEnv(
 
   return result;
 }
+
+/**
+ * Split a server's env into inline values and secret references, WITHOUT
+ * resolving the references.
+ *
+ * Used for injector-delivered servers, where the pod fetches its own values and
+ * mcpd must never materialise them. `resolveServerEnv` above stays as-is: it is
+ * still the path for Docker, for opted-out servers, and for the generated
+ * client `.mcp.json`.
+ */
+export function partitionServerEnv(server: McpServer): {
+  inline: Record<string, string>;
+  refs: Array<{ name: string; secretName: string; key: string }>;
+} {
+  const entries = (server.env ?? []) as ServerEnvEntry[];
+  const inline: Record<string, string> = {};
+  const refs: Array<{ name: string; secretName: string; key: string }> = [];
+
+  for (const entry of entries) {
+    if (entry.value !== undefined) {
+      inline[entry.name] = entry.value;
+    } else if (entry.valueFrom?.secretRef) {
+      refs.push({
+        name: entry.name,
+        secretName: entry.valueFrom.secretRef.name,
+        key: entry.valueFrom.secretRef.key,
+      });
+    }
+  }
+  return { inline, refs };
+}
+
+/**
+ * Resolve every reference and DISCARD the values, purely to make a missing
+ * secret or key fail loudly at instance start.
+ *
+ * Once a server is injector-delivered, mcpd no longer reads its secrets, so the
+ * check that commit e6cd735 bought stops firing for it: a bad secretRef would
+ * degrade from a clear `secret resolution failed: …` into a vault-agent-init
+ * crashloop that mcpd reports as a generic pod failure. That is the exact class
+ * of bug that had gitea-mcp running for weeks with an empty token while
+ * reporting healthy — so we keep paying for the check. After the value cache it
+ * is a cache hit and costs essentially nothing.
+ */
+export async function validateServerEnvRefs(
+  server: McpServer,
+  resolver: SecretResolver,
+): Promise<void> {
+  const { refs } = partitionServerEnv(server);
+  for (const ref of refs) {
+    try {
+      await resolver.resolve(ref.secretName, ref.key);
+    } catch (err) {
+      const msg = err instanceof Error ? err.message : String(err);
+      throw new Error(
+        `Cannot resolve secret for server '${server.name}' env '${ref.name}': ${msg}`,
+      );
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/services/instance.service.ts b/src/mcpd/src/services/instance.service.ts
index 6464fbf..14f88ad 100644
--- a/src/mcpd/src/services/instance.service.ts
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/services/instance.service.ts
@@ -2,7 +2,28 @@ import type { McpInstance, McpServer } from '@prisma/client';
 import type { IMcpInstanceRepository, IMcpServerRepository } from '../repositories/interfaces.js';
 import type { McpOrchestrator, ContainerSpec, ContainerInfo } from './orchestrator.js';
 import { NotFoundError } from './mcp-server.service.js';
-import { resolveServerEnv, type SecretResolver } from './env-resolver.js';
+import {
+  resolveServerEnv,
+  partitionServerEnv,
+  validateServerEnvRefs,
+  type SecretResolver,
+} from './env-resolver.js';
+
+/**
+ * What InstanceService needs from the per-server identity layer. Kept narrow
+ * and local so the orchestration stays testable without an OpenBao backend.
+ */
+export interface ServerIdentityProvisioner {
+  /** Converge the server's identity; resolves to the ServiceAccount/role name. */
+  ensureFor(server: McpServer): Promise<string>;
+  /** Injector pod annotations for these refs under that identity. */
+  annotationsFor(
+    identity: string,
+    refs: Array<{ name: string; secretName: string; key: string }>,
+  ): Record<string, string>;
+  /** Rewrite argv to source the rendered secrets before exec'ing the server. */
+  wrapCommand(server: McpServer, command: string[] | undefined): string[] | undefined;
+}
 
 /** Runner images for package-based MCP servers, keyed by runtime name. */
 const RUNNER_IMAGES: Record<string, string> = {
@@ -62,6 +83,8 @@ export class InstanceService {
     private serverRepo: IMcpServerRepository,
     private orchestrator: McpOrchestrator,
     private secretResolver?: SecretResolver,
+    /** Provisions per-server OpenBao identities. Absent = injector unavailable. */
+    private serverIdentity?: ServerIdentityProvisioner,
   ) {}
 
   /**
@@ -501,11 +524,31 @@ export class InstanceService {
       // will retry it in-place on the next tick whose nextRetryAt has
       // elapsed. Optional/missing env vars should be modeled as `value: ""`
       // entries on the server, not as silent secret-resolution failures.
+      // Injected delivery needs BOTH an orchestrator that can honour references
+      // (Docker cannot) and a provisioner for the per-server identity. Falling
+      // back to inline resolution when either is missing keeps local dev and
+      // plaintext-backend setups working unchanged.
+      const useInjector = server.secretDelivery === 'injector'
+        && this.orchestrator.capabilities?.secretRefs === true
+        && this.serverIdentity !== undefined;
+
       if (this.secretResolver) {
         try {
-          const resolvedEnv = await resolveServerEnv(server, this.secretResolver);
-          if (Object.keys(resolvedEnv).length > 0) {
-            spec.env = resolvedEnv;
+          if (useInjector) {
+            // Resolve and DISCARD, purely so a missing secret still fails here
+            // with a clear message instead of becoming a vault-agent-init
+            // crashloop that mcpd reports as a generic pod failure. See
+            // validateServerEnvRefs.
+            await validateServerEnvRefs(server, this.secretResolver);
+
+            const { inline, refs } = partitionServerEnv(server);
+            if (Object.keys(inline).length > 0) spec.env = inline;
+            spec.envFromSecret = refs;
+          } else {
+            const resolvedEnv = await resolveServerEnv(server, this.secretResolver);
+            if (Object.keys(resolvedEnv).length > 0) {
+              spec.env = resolvedEnv;
+            }
           }
         } catch (envErr) {
           const msg = envErr instanceof Error ? envErr.message : String(envErr);
@@ -513,6 +556,22 @@ export class InstanceService {
         }
       }
 
+      if (useInjector && spec.envFromSecret !== undefined && spec.envFromSecret.length > 0) {
+        try {
+          // Converge the identity BEFORE the pod exists: a pod whose role is
+          // not yet written logs in, gets no capabilities, and crashloops.
+          const identity = await this.serverIdentity!.ensureFor(server);
+          spec.serviceAccountName = identity;
+          spec.automountServiceAccountToken = true;
+          spec.annotations = this.serverIdentity!.annotationsFor(identity, spec.envFromSecret);
+          const wrapped = this.serverIdentity!.wrapCommand(server, spec.command);
+          if (wrapped !== undefined) spec.command = wrapped;
+        } catch (idErr) {
+          const msg = idErr instanceof Error ? idErr.message : String(idErr);
+          return this.markInstanceError(instance, `secret identity provisioning failed: ${msg}`);
+        }
+      }
+
       // Pull image if not available locally
       try {
         await this.orchestrator.pullImage(image);
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/services/k8s/kubernetes-orchestrator.ts b/src/mcpd/src/services/k8s/kubernetes-orchestrator.ts
index 27ace79..2057052 100644
--- a/src/mcpd/src/services/k8s/kubernetes-orchestrator.ts
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/services/k8s/kubernetes-orchestrator.ts
@@ -97,6 +97,9 @@ function podToContainerInfo(pod: V1Pod): ContainerInfo {
 }
 
 export class KubernetesOrchestrator implements McpOrchestrator {
+  /** Pods can fetch their own secrets via the OpenBao agent injector. */
+  readonly capabilities = { secretRefs: true } as const;
+
   private client: K8sOfficialClient;
   private namespace: string;
 
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/services/k8s/manifest-generator.ts b/src/mcpd/src/services/k8s/manifest-generator.ts
index b348142..c46ee3f 100644
--- a/src/mcpd/src/services/k8s/manifest-generator.ts
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/services/k8s/manifest-generator.ts
@@ -10,8 +10,10 @@ export interface K8sPodManifest {
     name: string;
     namespace: string;
     labels: Record<string, string>;
+    annotations?: Record<string, string>;
   };
   spec: {
+    serviceAccountName?: string;
     containers: Array<{
       name: string;
       image: string;
@@ -41,6 +43,108 @@ export interface K8sPodManifest {
   };
 }
 
+/** Directory the OpenBao agent renders this pod's secrets into. */
+export const INJECTED_SECRET_DIR = '/vault/secrets';
+
+/**
+ * Quote a shell value for a file that will be `.`-sourced: single quotes, with
+ * any embedded `'` closed-escaped-reopened.
+ *
+ * Not cosmetic. The rendered file is sourced by /bin/sh, so a value containing
+ * a space, `$`, a quote or a newline would otherwise truncate or mangle the
+ * variable — *silently*, producing an empty token and a server that starts,
+ * answers tools/list and reports healthy while every authenticated call fails.
+ * That is precisely the failure this change exists to prevent, so the escaping
+ * is part of the contract, not a detail.
+ */
+export function shellSingleQuote(inner: string): string {
+  return "'" + inner.split("'").join("'\\''") + "'";
+}
+
+export interface InjectorEnvRef {
+  /** Env var name inside the container. */
+  name: string;
+  /** mcpctl Secret name. */
+  secretName: string;
+  /** Key within that secret. */
+  key: string;
+}
+
+export interface InjectorConfig {
+  /** OpenBao role to log in as — one per server, scoped to its own secrets. */
+  role: string;
+  /** Auth mount that validates THIS cluster's ServiceAccount tokens. */
+  authPath: string;
+  /** KV v2 mount, e.g. `secret`. */
+  mount: string;
+  /** Path prefix under the mount, e.g. `mcpctl`. */
+  pathPrefix: string;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Pod annotations that drive the OpenBao Agent Injector.
+ *
+ * One rendered file per referenced Secret (the agent keys files by the
+ * annotation suffix), each holding `export NAME='value'` lines for every env
+ * var drawn from that Secret.
+ *
+ * `agent-pre-populate-only` is deliberate: the agent runs as an init container
+ * and exits. MCP servers cannot reload env anyway, so a long-lived sidecar
+ * would buy nothing and cost memory in every pod — and these pods run at a flat
+ * 512Mi where Node-based servers have already been OOMKilled.
+ */
+export function buildInjectorAnnotations(
+  refs: InjectorEnvRef[],
+  cfg: InjectorConfig,
+): Record<string, string> {
+  const bySecret = new Map<string, InjectorEnvRef[]>();
+  for (const ref of refs) {
+    const list = bySecret.get(ref.secretName) ?? [];
+    list.push(ref);
+    bySecret.set(ref.secretName, list);
+  }
+
+  const annotations: Record<string, string> = {
+    'vault.hashicorp.com/agent-inject': 'true',
+    'vault.hashicorp.com/agent-pre-populate-only': 'true',
+    'vault.hashicorp.com/role': cfg.role,
+    // Without this the agent logs in at the default `auth/kubernetes`, which
+    // validates a DIFFERENT cluster's ServiceAccounts and holds none of our
+    // roles — every login would fail with a confusing permission error.
+    'vault.hashicorp.com/auth-path': cfg.authPath,
+  };
+
+  const prefix = cfg.pathPrefix === '' ? '' : `${cfg.pathPrefix}/`;
+  for (const [secretName, entries] of [...bySecret.entries()].sort((a, b) => a[0].localeCompare(b[0]))) {
+    const path = `${cfg.mount}/data/${prefix}${secretName}`;
+    annotations[`vault.hashicorp.com/agent-inject-secret-${secretName}`] = path;
+    const lines = entries
+      .slice()
+      .sort((a, b) => a.name.localeCompare(b.name))
+      .map((e) => `export ${e.name}=${shellSingleQuote(`{{ .Data.data.${e.key} }}`)}`);
+    annotations[`vault.hashicorp.com/agent-inject-template-${secretName}`] =
+      `{{- with secret "${path}" -}}\n${lines.join('\n')}\n{{- end -}}`;
+  }
+  return annotations;
+}
+
+/**
+ * Rewrite the container command to source the rendered secrets, then exec the
+ * real process.
+ *
+ * `sh -c <script> arg0 arg1 …` binds `$0`/`$@`, which is how the server's own
+ * argv survives intact. `exec` matters just as much: mcpd attaches to PID 1's
+ * stdin/stdout for STDIO servers, so the real process must REPLACE the shell
+ * rather than run forked beneath it.
+ */
+export function wrapCommandForInjector(argv: string[], secretNames: string[]): string[] {
+  const sources = [...secretNames]
+    .sort((a, b) => a.localeCompare(b))
+    .map((n) => `. ${INJECTED_SECRET_DIR}/${n}`)
+    .join('; ');
+  return ['/bin/sh', '-c', `${sources}; exec "$0" "$@"`, ...argv];
+}
+
 export interface K8sPvcManifest {
   apiVersion: 'v1';
   kind: 'PersistentVolumeClaim';
@@ -225,12 +329,19 @@ export function generatePodSpec(spec: ContainerSpec, namespace: string): K8sPodM
       name: sanitizeName(spec.name),
       namespace,
       labels,
+      ...(spec.annotations && Object.keys(spec.annotations).length > 0
+        ? { annotations: spec.annotations }
+        : {}),
     },
     spec: {
+      ...(spec.serviceAccountName !== undefined
+        ? { serviceAccountName: spec.serviceAccountName }
+        : {}),
       containers: [buildContainerSpec(spec)],
       restartPolicy: 'Always',
-      // MCP server pods don't need k8s API access
-      automountServiceAccountToken: false,
+      // MCP server pods don't need k8s API access — EXCEPT when the OpenBao
+      // agent is injected, which logs in with the projected SA token.
+      automountServiceAccountToken: spec.automountServiceAccountToken ?? false,
       ...buildPodVolumes(spec),
       // On mixed-arch clusters, constrain to the same arch as mcpd
       // (runner images are typically single-arch)
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/services/k8s/service-account-port.ts b/src/mcpd/src/services/k8s/service-account-port.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..fb04681
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/services/k8s/service-account-port.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,52 @@
+/**
+ * Kubernetes adapter for `ServiceAccountPort` — one ServiceAccount per MCP
+ * server, so each pod authenticates to OpenBao as itself.
+ *
+ * Both operations are idempotent by design: `ensureFor` runs on every instance
+ * start and `removeFor` on every server delete, so "already exists" and "not
+ * found" are normal outcomes, not errors.
+ */
+import type { CoreV1Api } from '@kubernetes/client-node';
+import type { ServiceAccountPort } from '../server-identity.service.js';
+
+const MCPCTL_LABEL = 'mcpctl.managed';
+
+function statusOf(err: unknown): number | undefined {
+  const e = err as { code?: number; statusCode?: number; body?: { code?: number } };
+  return e?.code ?? e?.statusCode ?? e?.body?.code;
+}
+
+export class K8sServiceAccountPort implements ServiceAccountPort {
+  constructor(private readonly core: CoreV1Api, readonly namespace: string) {}
+
+  async ensure(name: string): Promise<void> {
+    try {
+      await this.core.createNamespacedServiceAccount({
+        namespace: this.namespace,
+        body: {
+          metadata: {
+            name,
+            namespace: this.namespace,
+            labels: { [MCPCTL_LABEL]: 'true' },
+          },
+          // No k8s API power is wanted here — this SA exists purely as an
+          // OpenBao identity. The pod still needs its token projected, which
+          // is set on the pod spec, not here.
+          automountServiceAccountToken: false,
+        },
+      });
+    } catch (err) {
+      if (statusOf(err) === 409) return; // already exists — the normal path
+      throw err;
+    }
+  }
+
+  async remove(name: string): Promise<void> {
+    try {
+      await this.core.deleteNamespacedServiceAccount({ name, namespace: this.namespace });
+    } catch (err) {
+      if (statusOf(err) === 404) return;
+      throw err;
+    }
+  }
+}
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/services/mcp-server.service.ts b/src/mcpd/src/services/mcp-server.service.ts
index 3425e21..146b20b 100644
--- a/src/mcpd/src/services/mcp-server.service.ts
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/services/mcp-server.service.ts
@@ -4,6 +4,8 @@ import type { InstanceService } from './instance.service.js';
 import { CreateMcpServerSchema, UpdateMcpServerSchema } from '../validation/mcp-server.schema.js';
 
 export class McpServerService {
+  private serverIdentity?: { removeFor(serverName: string): Promise<void> };
+
   private instanceService: InstanceService | null = null;
 
   constructor(private readonly repo: IMcpServerRepository) {}
@@ -55,14 +57,27 @@ export class McpServerService {
 
   async delete(id: string): Promise<void> {
     // Verify exists
-    await this.getById(id);
+    const server = await this.getById(id);
     // Stop all containers before DB cascade
     if (this.instanceService) {
       await this.instanceService.removeAllForServer(id);
     }
+    // Revoke the per-server OpenBao identity, if it had one. Best-effort and
+    // AFTER the pods are gone: a leftover role that no pod can authenticate as
+    // grants nothing, whereas failing the delete over it would strand the
+    // server row. Unconditional rather than gated on secretDelivery, so a
+    // server flipped back to `env` before deletion is still cleaned up.
+    if (this.serverIdentity) {
+      await this.serverIdentity.removeFor(server.name);
+    }
     await this.repo.delete(id);
   }
 
+  /** Setter injection, matching setInstanceService — constructed later in main. */
+  setServerIdentity(identity: { removeFor(serverName: string): Promise<void> }): void {
+    this.serverIdentity = identity;
+  }
+
   // ── Backup/restore helpers ──
 
   async upsertByName(data: Record<string, unknown>): Promise<McpServer> {
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/services/orchestrator.ts b/src/mcpd/src/services/orchestrator.ts
index 6b7a160..69cd343 100644
--- a/src/mcpd/src/services/orchestrator.ts
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/services/orchestrator.ts
@@ -47,6 +47,21 @@ export interface ContainerSpec {
   command?: string[];
   /** Environment variables */
   env?: Record<string, string>;
+  /**
+   * Env the ORCHESTRATOR must arrange for the container to obtain itself,
+   * carrying the reference and never the value.
+   *
+   * Kept separate from `env` rather than replacing it: `env` is the plaintext
+   * shape every existing server still uses, and the two must coexist while
+   * servers migrate one at a time.
+   */
+  envFromSecret?: Array<{ name: string; secretName: string; key: string }>;
+  /** Orchestrator hints. On Kubernetes these become pod annotations. */
+  annotations?: Record<string, string>;
+  /** Identity the pod runs as — how the backend knows which secrets it may read. */
+  serviceAccountName?: string;
+  /** Injected agents need the projected SA token; plain servers do not. */
+  automountServiceAccountToken?: boolean;
   /** Host port to bind (null = auto-assign) */
   hostPort?: number | null;
   /** Container port to expose */
@@ -91,6 +106,17 @@ export interface ExecResult {
 }
 
 export interface McpOrchestrator {
+  /**
+   * What this backend can do beyond running containers.
+   *
+   * `secretRefs` means the orchestrator can honour `ContainerSpec.envFromSecret`
+   * — i.e. arrange for the container to fetch its own secret values. Docker and
+   * Podman cannot, so mcpd resolves those refs itself and merges them into
+   * `env`. Declaring the difference here keeps it one visible decision at the
+   * call site instead of a silent divergence inside each implementation.
+   */
+  readonly capabilities?: { secretRefs: boolean };
+
   /** Pull an image if not present locally */
   pullImage(image: string): Promise<void>;
 
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/services/server-identity.service.ts b/src/mcpd/src/services/server-identity.service.ts
index f6f8d30..4d12fe9 100644
--- a/src/mcpd/src/services/server-identity.service.ts
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/services/server-identity.service.ts
@@ -32,6 +32,11 @@
 import type { McpServer } from '@prisma/client';
 import type { SecretBackendService } from './secret-backend.service.js';
 import type { ServerEnvEntry } from '../validation/mcp-server.schema.js';
+import {
+  buildInjectorAnnotations,
+  wrapCommandForInjector,
+  type InjectorEnvRef,
+} from './k8s/manifest-generator.js';
 
 /** Minimal Kubernetes surface this needs — keeps the service testable. */
 export interface ServiceAccountPort {
@@ -53,6 +58,22 @@ const NOOP_LOG: ServerIdentityLog = { info: () => undefined, warn: () => undefin
 /** Shared prefix. mcpd's OpenBao grant is confined to exactly this prefix. */
 export const IDENTITY_PREFIX = 'mcpctl-server-';
 
+/** Where the injector should authenticate and look for secrets. */
+export interface InjectorSettings {
+  /** Auth mount validating THIS cluster's ServiceAccount tokens. */
+  authPath: string;
+  /** KV v2 mount. */
+  mount: string;
+  /** Path prefix under the mount. */
+  pathPrefix: string;
+}
+
+export const DEFAULT_INJECTOR_SETTINGS: InjectorSettings = {
+  authPath: 'auth/kubernetes',
+  mount: 'secret',
+  pathPrefix: 'mcpctl',
+};
+
 export class ServerIdentityService {
   private readonly log: ServerIdentityLog;
 
@@ -60,10 +81,41 @@ export class ServerIdentityService {
     private readonly backends: SecretBackendService,
     private readonly serviceAccounts: ServiceAccountPort,
     log?: ServerIdentityLog,
+    private readonly injector: InjectorSettings = DEFAULT_INJECTOR_SETTINGS,
   ) {
     this.log = log ?? NOOP_LOG;
   }
 
+  /** Injector pod annotations for these refs, under the given identity. */
+  annotationsFor(identity: string, refs: InjectorEnvRef[]): Record<string, string> {
+    return buildInjectorAnnotations(refs, {
+      role: identity,
+      authPath: this.injector.authPath,
+      mount: this.injector.mount,
+      pathPrefix: this.injector.pathPrefix,
+    });
+  }
+
+  /**
+   * Rewrite argv so the rendered secrets are sourced before the server runs.
+   *
+   * `command` is what mcpd already computed: for package-based servers that is
+   * the runner image's entrypoint plus the package, which mcpd owns. For a
+   * dockerImage server it may be absent — the image's own ENTRYPOINT would run,
+   * and mcpd cannot introspect it, which is why `entrypoint` is required on the
+   * server row in that case (enforced at validation).
+   */
+  wrapCommand(
+    server: Pick<McpServer, 'env' | 'entrypoint'>,
+    command: string[] | undefined,
+  ): string[] | undefined {
+    const secretNames = this.secretNamesFor(server);
+    if (secretNames.length === 0) return command;
+    const argv = command ?? (server.entrypoint as string[] | null) ?? undefined;
+    if (argv === undefined || argv.length === 0) return command;
+    return wrapCommandForInjector(argv, secretNames);
+  }
+
   /** Identity name for a server — also the SA, policy and role name. */
   identityNameFor(serverName: string): string {
     return `${IDENTITY_PREFIX}${serverName}`;
diff --git a/src/mcpd/src/validation/mcp-server.schema.ts b/src/mcpd/src/validation/mcp-server.schema.ts
index 77b803f..e6a2e4c 100644
--- a/src/mcpd/src/validation/mcp-server.schema.ts
+++ b/src/mcpd/src/validation/mcp-server.schema.ts
@@ -19,6 +19,20 @@ export const ServerEnvEntrySchema = z.object({
 
 export type ServerEnvEntry = z.infer<typeof ServerEnvEntrySchema>;
 
+/**
+ * How secret-backed env reaches the container.
+ *
+ * `env` (default) resolves values in mcpd and writes them into the pod spec —
+ * cleartext in etcd, readable by anyone with `get pod`. `injector` has the pod
+ * fetch its own secrets from OpenBao, under an identity scoped to just that
+ * server's secrets, so the value never touches the pod spec.
+ *
+ * Defaulting to `env` keeps every existing server bit-for-bit unchanged;
+ * migrating is an explicit, reversible, per-server decision.
+ */
+export const SecretDeliverySchema = z.enum(['env', 'injector']);
+export type SecretDelivery = z.infer<typeof SecretDeliverySchema>;
+
 export const CreateMcpServerSchema = z.object({
   name: z.string().min(1).max(100).regex(/^[a-z0-9-]+$/, 'Name must be lowercase alphanumeric with hyphens'),
   description: z.string().max(1000).default(''),
@@ -34,6 +48,8 @@ export const CreateMcpServerSchema = z.object({
   env: z.array(ServerEnvEntrySchema).default([]),
   healthCheck: HealthCheckSchema.optional(),
   volumes: z.array(VolumeSpecSchema).default([]),
+  secretDelivery: SecretDeliverySchema.default('env'),
+  entrypoint: z.array(z.string()).optional(),
 }).refine(
   (s) => s.volumes.length === 0 || s.replicas <= 1,
   {
@@ -42,6 +58,16 @@ export const CreateMcpServerSchema = z.object({
       + 'so the extra replicas would sit unschedulable on a volume they cannot mount.',
     path: ['replicas'],
   },
+).refine(
+  (s) => s.secretDelivery !== 'injector' || s.dockerImage === undefined || s.entrypoint !== undefined,
+  {
+    message:
+      'secretDelivery: injector on a dockerImage server needs an explicit entrypoint. '
+      + 'The injector renders secrets to a file, so the container command is rewritten to source '
+      + 'it and exec the real process — and mcpd cannot read the image\'s own ENTRYPOINT to know '
+      + 'what that process is. Package-based servers do not need this (mcpd owns their entrypoint).',
+    path: ['entrypoint'],
+  },
 );
 
 export const UpdateMcpServerSchema = z.object({
@@ -58,6 +84,8 @@ export const UpdateMcpServerSchema = z.object({
   env: z.array(ServerEnvEntrySchema).optional(),
   healthCheck: HealthCheckSchema.nullable().optional(),
   volumes: z.array(VolumeSpecSchema).optional(),
+  secretDelivery: SecretDeliverySchema.optional(),
+  entrypoint: z.array(z.string()).nullable().optional(),
 });
 
 export type CreateMcpServerInput = z.infer<typeof CreateMcpServerSchema>;
diff --git a/src/mcpd/tests/injector-instance-wiring.test.ts b/src/mcpd/tests/injector-instance-wiring.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..f64d9de
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/mcpd/tests/injector-instance-wiring.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,67 @@
+/**
+ * Instance-start wiring for injector delivery.
+ *
+ * Two invariants dominate: an opted-OUT server behaves exactly as before, and
+ * an opted-IN server still fails LOUDLY on a bad secret ref. The second is the
+ * one at risk — once mcpd stops reading a server's secrets, the fail-loud check
+ * from e6cd735 no longer fires for it, and a typo'd ref degrades into a
+ * vault-agent-init crashloop reported as a generic pod failure.
+ */
+import { describe, it, expect, vi } from 'vitest';
+import { partitionServerEnv, validateServerEnvRefs } from '../src/services/env-resolver.js';
+import type { McpServer } from '@prisma/client';
+
+function server(overrides: Partial<McpServer> = {}): McpServer {
+  return {
+    name: 'gitea',
+    env: [
+      { name: 'GITEA_HOST', value: 'https://example' },
+      { name: 'GITEA_ACCESS_TOKEN', valueFrom: { secretRef: { name: 'gitea-creds', key: 'GITEA_ACCESS_TOKEN' } } },
+    ],
+    ...overrides,
+  } as McpServer;
+}
+
+describe('partitionServerEnv', () => {
+  it('separates inline values from references without resolving anything', () => {
+    const { inline, refs } = partitionServerEnv(server());
+    expect(inline).toEqual({ GITEA_HOST: 'https://example' });
+    expect(refs).toEqual([
+      { name: 'GITEA_ACCESS_TOKEN', secretName: 'gitea-creds', key: 'GITEA_ACCESS_TOKEN' },
+    ]);
+  });
+
+  it('never carries a secret value — that is the whole point', () => {
+    const { inline } = partitionServerEnv(server());
+    expect(JSON.stringify(inline)).not.toContain('TOKEN_VALUE');
+    expect(Object.keys(inline)).not.toContain('GITEA_ACCESS_TOKEN');
+  });
+
+  it('handles a server with no env at all', () => {
+    expect(partitionServerEnv(server({ env: [] }))).toEqual({ inline: {}, refs: [] });
+  });
+});
+
+describe('validateServerEnvRefs — preserves the fail-loud invariant', () => {
+  it('resolves every ref and discards the value', async () => {
+    const resolve = vi.fn(async () => 'super-secret');
+    await validateServerEnvRefs(server(), { resolve });
+    expect(resolve).toHaveBeenCalledWith('gitea-creds', 'GITEA_ACCESS_TOKEN');
+  });
+
+  it('throws the SAME message shape as inline resolution on a bad ref', async () => {
+    // instance.service turns this into markInstanceError("secret resolution
+    // failed: …"), which is what an operator greps for.
+    const resolve = vi.fn(async () => { throw new Error("Secret 'gitea-creds' has no key 'NOPE'"); });
+    await expect(validateServerEnvRefs(
+      server({ env: [{ name: 'T', valueFrom: { secretRef: { name: 'gitea-creds', key: 'NOPE' } } }] as never }),
+      { resolve },
+    )).rejects.toThrow(/Cannot resolve secret for server 'gitea' env 'T'/);
+  });
+
+  it('does nothing for a server with no refs', async () => {
+    const resolve = vi.fn();
+    await validateServerEnvRefs(server({ env: [{ name: 'X', value: 'y' }] as never }), { resolve });
+    expect(resolve).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
+  });
+});
diff --git a/src/mcpd/tests/injector-manifest.test.ts b/src/mcpd/tests/injector-manifest.test.ts
new file mode 100644
index 0000000..4b6788c
--- /dev/null
+++ b/src/mcpd/tests/injector-manifest.test.ts
@@ -0,0 +1,138 @@
+/**
+ * Injector manifest generation.
+ *
+ * The two things that must not break: a server NOT opted in produces a
+ * byte-identical manifest to before, and a rendered secret value survives the
+ * shell intact whatever it contains. The second is the subtle one — bad quoting
+ * fails silently, yielding an empty token and a server that reports healthy
+ * while every authenticated call fails.
+ */
+import { describe, it, expect } from 'vitest';
+import { execFileSync } from 'node:child_process';
+import { writeFileSync, mkdtempSync } from 'node:fs';
+import { tmpdir } from 'node:os';
+import { join } from 'node:path';
+import {
+  generatePodSpec,
+  buildInjectorAnnotations,
+  wrapCommandForInjector,
+  shellSingleQuote,
+} from '../src/services/k8s/manifest-generator.js';
+import type { ContainerSpec } from '../src/services/orchestrator.js';
+
+const BASE: ContainerSpec = { name: 'gitea', image: 'gitea/mcp:latest' } as ContainerSpec;
+const CFG = { role: 'mcpctl-server-gitea', authPath: 'auth/kubernetes-worker0', mount: 'secret', pathPrefix: 'mcpctl' };
+
+describe('generatePodSpec — opted-out servers are untouched', () => {
+  it('emits no annotations, no serviceAccountName, automount still false', () => {
+    const pod = generatePodSpec({ ...BASE, env: { TOKEN: 'plain' } } as ContainerSpec, 'mcpctl-servers');
+    expect(pod.metadata.annotations).toBeUndefined();
+    expect(pod.spec.serviceAccountName).toBeUndefined();
+    expect(pod.spec.automountServiceAccountToken).toBe(false);
+    expect(pod.spec.containers[0]?.env).toEqual([{ name: 'TOKEN', value: 'plain' }]);
+  });
+});
+
+describe('generatePodSpec — opted-in servers', () => {
+  const spec = {
+    ...BASE,
+    annotations: buildInjectorAnnotations(
+      [{ name: 'GITEA_ACCESS_TOKEN', secretName: 'gitea-creds', key: 'GITEA_ACCESS_TOKEN' }],
+      CFG,
+    ),
+    serviceAccountName: 'mcpctl-server-gitea',
+    automountServiceAccountToken: true,
+  } as ContainerSpec;
+
+  it('carries no secret VALUE anywhere in the manifest', () => {
+    const pod = generatePodSpec(spec, 'mcpctl-servers');
+    const json = JSON.stringify(pod);
+    expect(json).not.toContain('de4c69ed');
+    expect(pod.spec.containers[0]?.env ?? []).toEqual([]);
+  });
+
+  it('runs as its own ServiceAccount with the SA token projected', () => {
+    const pod = generatePodSpec(spec, 'mcpctl-servers');
+    expect(pod.spec.serviceAccountName).toBe('mcpctl-server-gitea');
+    // The agent cannot log in without it; false here is a silent crashloop.
+    expect(pod.spec.automountServiceAccountToken).toBe(true);
+  });
+
+  it('pins the auth path to the mount that validates THIS cluster', () => {
+    const a = buildInjectorAnnotations([{ name: 'T', secretName: 's', key: 'k' }], CFG);
+    expect(a['vault.hashicorp.com/auth-path']).toBe('auth/kubernetes-worker0');
+    expect(a['vault.hashicorp.com/role']).toBe('mcpctl-server-gitea');
+    // init container only — no sidecar in a 512Mi pod
+    expect(a['vault.hashicorp.com/agent-pre-populate-only']).toBe('true');
+  });
+
+  it('groups env vars by the secret they come from', () => {
+    const a = buildInjectorAnnotations([
+      { name: 'HOST', secretName: 'gitea-creds', key: 'GITEA_HOST' },
+      { name: 'TOKEN', secretName: 'gitea-creds', key: 'GITEA_ACCESS_TOKEN' },
+      { name: 'OTHER', secretName: 'other-creds', key: 'K' },
+    ], CFG);
+    expect(a['vault.hashicorp.com/agent-inject-secret-gitea-creds']).toBe('secret/data/mcpctl/gitea-creds');
+    expect(a['vault.hashicorp.com/agent-inject-secret-other-creds']).toBe('secret/data/mcpctl/other-creds');
+    const tpl = a['vault.hashicorp.com/agent-inject-template-gitea-creds'] ?? '';
+    expect(tpl).toContain('export HOST=');
+    expect(tpl).toContain('export TOKEN=');
+    expect(tpl).not.toContain('export OTHER=');
+  });
+
+  it('is stable under input reordering', () => {
+    const refs = [
+      { name: 'B', secretName: 'z', key: 'k' },
+      { name: 'A', secretName: 'a', key: 'k' },
+    ];
+    expect(buildInjectorAnnotations(refs, CFG)).toEqual(buildInjectorAnnotations([...refs].reverse(), CFG));
+  });
+});
+
+describe('wrapCommandForInjector', () => {
+  it('preserves argv exactly via $0/$@ and execs so PID 1 is the real process', () => {
+    // exec matters: mcpd attaches to PID 1 stdin/stdout for STDIO servers.
+    const cmd = wrapCommandForInjector(['node', 'server.js', '--port', '3000'], ['a-creds']);
+    expect(cmd[0]).toBe('/bin/sh');
+    expect(cmd[1]).toBe('-c');
+    expect(cmd[2]).toContain('exec "$0" "$@"');
+    expect(cmd.slice(3)).toEqual(['node', 'server.js', '--port', '3000']);
+  });
+
+  it('sources every referenced secret file, in a stable order', () => {
+    const cmd = wrapCommandForInjector(['x'], ['b-creds', 'a-creds']);
+    expect(cmd[2]).toBe('. /vault/secrets/a-creds; . /vault/secrets/b-creds; exec "$0" "$@"');
+  });
+});
+
+describe('shell quoting survives adversarial values', () => {
+  // Executed by a real /bin/sh: asserting on the string alone would prove
+  // nothing about what the shell actually does with it.
+  const nasty = [
+    'plain',
+    'with space',
+    "single'quote",
+    'double"quote',
+    '$USER and `whoami`',
+    'semi;colon && rm -rf /',
+    'new\nline',
+    'back\\slash',
+    "'; export PWNED=1; '",
+  ];
+
+  it.each(nasty)('round-trips %j through a sourced file', (value) => {
+    const dir = mkdtempSync(join(tmpdir(), 'mcpctl-quote-'));
+    const file = join(dir, 'env');
+    writeFileSync(file, `export SECRET=${shellSingleQuote(value)}\n`);
+    const out = execFileSync('/bin/sh', ['-c', `. ${file}; printf '%s' "$SECRET"`], { encoding: 'utf-8' });
+    expect(out).toBe(value);
+  });
+
+  it('does not let a crafted value execute anything', () => {
+    const dir = mkdtempSync(join(tmpdir(), 'mcpctl-quote-'));
+    const file = join(dir, 'env');
+    writeFileSync(file, `export SECRET=${shellSingleQuote("'; touch /tmp/mcpctl-pwned; '")}\n`);
+    const out = execFileSync('/bin/sh', ['-c', `. ${file}; printf '%s' "$PWNED_MARKER"`], { encoding: 'utf-8' });
+    expect(out).toBe('');
+  });
+});